Imperialism, the policy of extending a nation’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force, has been practiced for millennia by empires from ancient Rome to the British Empire. While the United States originated as a colony fighting against imperialism, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it too began to engage in imperialistic ventures. The justifications provided for this expansion can be categorized into economic, strategic, cultural, and ideological reasons.
One of the primary justifications for American imperialism was economic expansion. The U.S. underwent rapid industrialization in the latter half of the 19th century. This economic growth led to an increased demand for raw materials, markets for manufactured goods, and new investments. As domestic markets became saturated, U.S. producers sought new consumers overseas.
For instance, the annexation of Hawaii in 1898 served American sugar planters who had already established a foothold on the islands. The Open Door Policy of 1899, which demanded equal trading rights in China for all imperial powers, aimed to ensure that American businesses had access to the vast Chinese market.
Another important rationale for American imperialism was strategic military interests. As the U.S. became a major global power, it sought strategic locations for military and naval bases to protect its interests and sea lanes. This was evident in the acquisition of territories following the Spanish-American War of 1898. The U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. These territories, especially the Philippines, were seen as important strategic points in the Pacific.
The construction of the Panama Canal, completed in 1914, further exemplified the U.S.’s strategic interests in controlling important global trade routes.
Many proponents of American imperialism believed in the cultural superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race and saw it as their moral duty to civilize “backward” nations. This paternalistic view was influenced by Social Darwinism, which applied Darwin’s theory of evolution to human societies and posited that certain races were more advanced than others.
The poet Rudyard Kipling’s call to the U.S. to “Take up the White Man’s burden” in his poem of the same name captured this sentiment. The idea was that the U.S., as a superior nation, had a responsibility to bring its civilization, Christianity, and way of life to colonized peoples. Such beliefs were not only racially biased but also served to legitimize American control over other nations by presenting it as a benevolent endeavor.
Rooted in its revolutionary origins and democratic ideals, the U.S. cultivated a belief in its exceptional role in the world. Many saw America’s expansion not as imperialism in the traditional sense but as the spread of liberty and democracy. President William McKinley, when explaining his decision to annex the Philippines, stated that it was to “educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them.”
This perspective framed American imperialism as fundamentally different and morally superior to European imperialism. The U.S. was seen not as a conquering force but as a liberator, bringing the benefits of its unique democratic system to the world.
The justifications provided for American imperialism at the turn of the 20th century were multifaceted. While economic and strategic interests were paramount, cultural and ideological beliefs about American superiority and exceptionalism also played a significant role. These justifications, especially the cultural and ideological ones, have been the subject of much criticism and debate among historians.
In retrospect, it’s evident that while some Americans genuinely believed in their mission to uplift and civilize other nations, imperialism also served concrete economic and strategic benefits. As the U.S. has evolved and reflected upon its past, the justifications for imperialism have been increasingly questioned, leading to a more nuanced understanding of America’s role in global history.
The industrial age spurred created many great changes in America. As production increased American business began to look out at the world as a means to support that growing industry.
In the early 1800 President George Washington had urged America to “steer clear of foreign affairs.” This was about to change as Americans looked to expand overseas.
American imperialism was caused by:
“Today we are raising more than we can consume. Today we are making more than we can use… Therefore we must find new markets for our produce, new occupation for our capital, new work for our labor… Ah! As our commerce spreads, the flag of liberty will circle the globe and the highway of the ocean -carrying trade to all mankind – will be guarded by the guns of the republic. And as their thunders salute the flag, benighted (ignorant) peoples will know that the voice of liberty is speaking, at last, for them… that civilization is dawning at last, for them.
–Senator Alfred Beveridge, 1898
Americans justified imperialistic behavior by:
American policy makers were clear in the course of action. We were to follow an aggressive imperialistic foreign policy.